ࡱ> '` rbjbj{P{P .::r~f2f2f2f2\3Ta2"4"4"4"4"4"4"4"4```````$Bbhd`&N"4"4&N&N`"4"4`SSS&N."4"4`S&N`SSS[hG\"44 `~f2TQ[``0a[|.e6R.e G\G\.e[\4"4<DS,C0H"4"4"4`` S "4"4"4a&N&N&N&Nbb capacity development through training AT SEA: HISTORY and lessons leArned from the last 20 years Shipboard training has always been on the IOC agenda. However throughout the years the approach has changed from occasional, non-systematic training provided mostly in the use of modern oceanographic equipment to long-term capacity development programs of training in marine science. I. Training-through-Research program: anatomy and lessons The Training-through-Research (TTR) endeavor started in 1991 and became an IOC program within TEMA in 1995 (Resolution XVIII-14). This undertaking seeks to achieve more effective training of students and young researchers through their participation in advanced multi-disciplinary research programs. I.1. The starting period (1990-1996) I.1.1. Beginnings An initiative of Moscow State University, the programmes seeds had been sown during discussions at a UNESCO workshop on 'Year 2000 Challenges for Marine Science Training and Education World-wide' (1988) [1] and in particular, grew up from the recommendations of the UNESCO workshop on 'University Field Courses in Marine Sciences' (1989) [2]. In December 1990 a workshop hosted by the Institute of Marine Geology in Bologna, Italy succeeded in combining the two seemingly (at that time) uncompromising needs for education at the university level and research, and formulated the concept that is reflected now in the program title, Training-through-Research [3]. Twenty years ago this approach was innovative and challenging, and no other program of the same nature existed in Europe or elsewhere. Dr John Woodside (Free University of Amsterdam) was elected the first TTR Co-ordinator while Dr Mikhail Ivanov (Moscow State University) has become the principal organizer and Co-chief Scientist of the TTR cruises. Since 1997 the TTR co-ordination has been with Dr Neil Kenyon (National Oceanography Centre Southampton, UK) and many leading researches became co-chief scientists in the TTR cruises. I.1.2. Focus on scientific problems From the very beginning it was decided to concentrate research efforts at the most intriguing scientific issues. This created the basis for the TTR success including in training in breaking-through science. Research themes selected at the 1990 Workshop included [3]: deep-sea fans studies, mud diapirism, mud volcanoes, fluid escape, shelf/slope processes, mass sliding, sequence stratigraphy, hydrothermalism and hot brine areas, organic matter, sapropels, geochemical analyses, marine micropaleontology and paleoclimate, pollution and environmental conditions, collisional processes and accretionary prisms, extensional tectonics, salt tectonics, deep-sea sedimentation and processes. In early 1990th many of these themes like fluid escape on the sea bottom were at an early stage thus representing a considerable interest for research. I.1.3. TTR goal The overall TTR goal was formulated in the following way: To foster an international community of young scientists, well trained, coming from a variety of nations and cultures but appreciating their differences and gaining from them, capable of handling advanced equipment and managing high-quality scientific data, collected and interpreted under the guidance of leading professionals from universities and academic institutions, getting involved in publication of scientific papers. I.1.4. Historical context It was fortunate that the following three elements met at that time: the Russian interest in advanced training at the university level, the West-European interest in a flexible but focused research program and certainly the availability, at a very advantageous rate, of a research platform: the newly constructed (in 1989) big (5800 t) Russian R/V Gelendzhik (from 1997 on her sister-ship Professor Logachev) specifically designed and equipped for deep-sea geological-geophysical investigations. In addition, favorable approach to the new program from international organizations like UNESCO and the European Science Foundation, and national bodies like the Netherlands Foundation for Geological, Oceanographic and Atmospheric Research (GOA) and the Russian Ministry of Geology, as well as co-funding from these and other participating institutions created the basis for the TTR organizational success. One should recall that this was a historical moment when the iron curtain was starting to lift and interests in joining forces in the new global political configuration were particularly strong. I.1.5. TTR annual cycle The annual TTR cycle as fully established by the year 1992, includes: (i) preparation of an international cruise by the TTR Executive Committee; the Committee nominates Co-chief Scientists for each Leg of every cruise; (ii) TTR cruise that combines an extensive research programme, on-the-job training and daily lectures and seminars for trainees. When possible, it includes a mid-cruise field workshop for the participants and invited scientists to advance their knowledge in geological processes; (iii) after the cruise, extensive exchange of the participants for data processing and analyses; (iv) six months after the cruise, a post-cruise conference to present and discuss results of on-going analyses and interpretation of data, and to co-ordinate with other regional studies. Proceedings of the TTR conferences are published in the IOC Workshop Series; and (v) preparation of scientific reports and publications. Scientific reports with the cruise data are published in the IOC Technical Series. I.1.6. First results (1991-1996) About all tools of modern ocean science was deployed within TTR: high-resolution seismic, conventional and deep tow sidescan sonar imaging at a range of frequencies, a variety of coring devices from the conventional ones to a TV-controlled grab sampler and a vibrocorer for coarse sediments, video observations, etc. In addition to data collection, the data analyses and interpretation were organized on board, complemented with brain-storming discussions at shipboard seminars and post-cruise conferences. Among the first TTR research results many were pioneering indeed. These included: discovery and studies of hitherto unknown mud volcanoes in the Black Sea and many new mud volcanoes in the Mediterranean Sea; study of gas hydrates collected in different areas in the Mediterranean and Black seas (earlier not known in the region); research related to fluid escape from the Geosphere into the Hydrosphere; study of geohazards and mass-movement at continental slopes and formation of deep-sea fans; and last but not least was the first comprehensive study of carbonate mounds somewhat earlier discovered at the European margin. Six TTR cruises (1991-1996) involved over 300 participants (researchers and trainees) from Bulgaria, Chile, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Morocco, The Netherlands, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Switzerland, Tunisia, Turkey and UK. Around the same number of cruise participants, other interested researchers and invited guest lecturers attended the TTR Post-cruise conferences: yet another way of training in science. I.1.7. Recognition by the United Nations In recognition of its achievements and in particular its contribution to building international peace and tolerance - fundamental objectives of the United Nations - the TTR programme was included, in 1995, in the List of Events for the celebration of the 50th Anniversary of the United Nations. To commemorate the UN 50th Anniversary the newly discovered and studied by TTR-3, 4 and 5 cruises (1993-1995) bathymetric high (a belt of mud volcanoes) within the Mediterranean Ridge was called The United Nations Rise. I.1.8. Lessons from the starting period The first lesson learned is that the correct selection of research themes and good scientific results were (and still remain) among critical elements for success of the program. Also, an innovative approach formulated by the founding group of scientists, combination of research with shipboard training was seen as an attractive mechanism of advancing training in science. Thirdly, the TTR full cycle from joint planning of a cruise to publication of its results created a mechanism of long-term international co-operation based on common interests. Finally, without co-funding TTR would never start. Thus, at the first stage (1992-1994) indispensible financial support was provided by the European Science Foundation [4] and a few national funding sources (e.g. in the Netherlands and Russia). A number of countries (e.g. Turkey, Monaco, Spain) generously provided for in-kind contributions like waiving port charges. I.2. From research themes to focused programs (from 1997 on) I.2.1. Co-operation with International and European research programmes TTR has never been working in isolation. Its proven flexibility and excellent research results attracted from the very beginning a considerable number of eminent scientists who came on board with their scientific ideas, research targets, their students, and funds. The TTR-3 (1993) cruise contributed to (and benefitted from) the international Ocean Drilling Program through surveys of five proposed drilling sites in the Mediterranean Sea. Co-operation was further established with a number of research projects of the European Union and the European Science Foundation such ENAM and ENAM II, CORSAIRES (FP4), EUROSTRATAFORM (FP5), EUROMARGINS and finally HERMES (FP6). TTR cruises were co-funded from the above projects and contributed to their success with the research results. Co-operation with and contributions from some of the national projects like the Dutch ANAXIPROBE, the Russian Bathymetric Mapping, Irish, Norwegian, Portuguese, Spanish and the US etc. sources shall not be neglected neither. I.2.2. Continental Margins: the new TTR target In 1997-1998 the TTR overall programme was further shaped to concentrate at processes and environments on continental margins (from the outer shelf to continental slope and rise). Some of the earlier programme elements became of secondary interest. Finally the two major lines of action were formulated, related to (i) interactions between the Geosphere, the Hydrosphere and the Biosphere shaping the sea-bottom environments and ecosystems, and (ii) sedimentary processes such as origin and structure of modern analogues of hydrocarbon reservoirs, geohazards etc. by this putting at the disposal of trainees a very important number of targets and research methods. The TTR-7 cruise (1997) and Post-cruise conference (1998) need our special attention. The cruise made the first comprehensive study of carbonate mounds: spectacular phenomena discovered somewhat earlier in the north-eastern Atlantic at the edge of the outer shelf. Over 150 mounds were mapped on just a small part of the slopes of the Rockall Trough and Porcupine Seabight that lie to the west of Ireland. Deep water trawling damage to corals on the upper slope was demonstrated from sidescan sonar and video data. A hitherto unknown strong northward current was discovered in the Porcupine Seabight. A giant (at least 60 miles wide) submarine slide overwhelmeding carbonate mounds was discovered on the Southern Rockall Bank, etc. [5]. It was concluded that the sidescan sonar was a clearly important tool for physical oceanographers in studying bottom currents, and for fisheries researchers in identifying such potential hazards as carbonate mounds. I.2.3. Geosphere-Biosphere coupling: a research programme of TTR The 1998 Post-cruise Conference (organized and hosted by Ghent University, Belgium) turned to become the launching event for the Geosphere-Biosphere Coupling Processes (GBCP) programme of the IOC that started contributing to the Ocean Sciences Programme of IOC. By that time the TTR scientists already formulated a few hypotheses about how geofluids shape the bottom environments and ecosystems and how mass movements at the sea bottom contribute to the same process. However there existed alternative views. Discussions and verification of different hypotheses by further research were challenging indeed. During the next years TTR cruises were carried out in a waste region from the Norwegian to the Morocco margins in the Atlantic Ocean, on the Greenland margin across the Atlantic Ocean, as well as on margins of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Some other areas in the North and Central Atlantic were visited as well. Within GBCP, TTR has concentrated its research on, inter alia, focused fluid discharge from the seafloor into the hydrosphere; composition of organic matter and hydrocarbon gases trapped in sediments and carbonate crusts associated with fluid seeps on the sea floor; as well as microbial activity and its relation with focused fluid inflow. These studies seek to define probable sources of such fluids as well as to gain a better understanding of the interaction between deep-formed hydrocarbons and subsurface sediments which lead to diagenetic changes, gas hydrate accumulation and the formation of deep-water specific environments and ecosystems. Fluids discharging from the geosphere contribute to the global carbon cycle, as well as to climate change. TTR organized a number of international meetings devoted to the above problems, for example Gas and Fluids in Marine Sediments (1997), Geosphere-Biosphere Coupling (1998) and Geosphere/Biosphere/Hydrosphere Coupling Processes, Fluid Escape Structures and Tectonics at Continental Margins and Ocean Ridges (2002); these subjects were also discussed at other annual TTR meetings and presented at the relevant international fora. I.2.4. TTR and the EU (FP6) HERMES project The TTR efforts in continental margins studies have been systematic, productive and pioneering. However TTR has not been the only programme that does it. Flagships of European oceanography have also surveyed the continental borderland, some of them year after year, in tens of cruises. These individual efforts culminated in a European project on Hotspot Ecosystem Research on the Margins of the European Seas (HERMES), 2005-2009. A capacity development component was foreseen by the projects work plan and IOC was invited to make TTR a training arm of HERMES. Funds that were made available to the IOC from HERMES were sufficient for just one Leg of a TTR cruise. However the invitation was considered favourably. At this win-win situation, as the counterpart contribution TTR organized and convened in total three cruises falling in the theme of HERMES. Other elements of the TTR training were applied as well. In the course of the TTR-15 (2005), 16 (2006) and 17 (2008) cruises training was provided to a total of 112 students who came from Belgium, Brazil, China, France, Georgia, Germany, Italy, Morocco, Mozambique, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey and the UK. Ten of the above 16 countries were members of the HERMES project. I.2.5. TTR opens to countries of the South The harsh realities of sponsorship prevented the TTR programme from inviting a greater number of participants from non-contributing countries. This said, every effort has been made to involve young researchers from developing countries who by the year 2004 represented about 10% of total trainees. In 2004 TTR got support through the UNESCO-Flanders Funds-in-Trust for the Support of UNESCOs Activities in the Field of Science (FUST) for a 4-year project (2004-2008) on Geosphere-Biosphere Coupling Processes in the Ocean: the Training-through-Research approach towards Third World involvement. The coach of the project was Prof. J-P. Henriet (Ghent University). The project funds were used to contribute to: (i) focused training-through-research on the Morocco margin during four TTR cruises (14 through 17); (ii) a series of field training workshops to look at ancient marine environments; (iii) participation of trainees from developing countries in the TTR cruises and Post-cruise conferences, other relevant meetings and other training activities (like that provided by the IOC/IODE Centre). Throughout the life time of the project the participation of trainees from the South in the TTR cruises augmented to 25% while in on-land activities it was close to 50%. The pilot country was Morocco, trainees also came from Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Cote dIvoire, Georgia, Italy, Mauritania, Mozambique, the Netherlands, Portugal, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Spain and the United Kingdom. Over 400 participants became involved (or around 100 per year). The TTR-Flanders project has contributed to unveil to the North African academic world the study of giant carbonate mounds and the remarkable deep-water coral reef ecosystems, fringing in particular the continental margins of both Europe and North Africa: the features of direct interest to oil industries. It has advanced knowledge on Geosphere-Biosphere coupling processes at Ocean Margins (i.e. the Morocco margin) and contributed to knowledge transfer and sharing by bringing together partners from countries of the North and the South, from academia, universities, industry and other relevant public sectors. Trainees from countries of the South have (co)authored the resulting reports and research papers. The project provided for capacity development in specific domains of marine science, including on sea-bed processes, resources and ecosystems. It also supported and shaped the first in Morocco Master course on Godynamique et valorisation des Marges ocaniques (littoral et zone conomique exclusive) established by Prof. Naima Hamoumi at Mohamed V-Agdal University (Rabat). I.2.6. Have these efforts been sustainable? Lessons learned One shall fully understand that a single project cannot solve a problem of the existing gap in capacities of countries of the North and the South. However targeted and well focused efforts may provide for improving the current situation in one or a few selected countries. These efforts shall not be abandoned after the end of a particular project. Establishment of specialized MSc courses in local universities (as has been the case of Morocco) will make the efforts more sustainable. In 2007 and 2008 contacts were established with the national (Morocco) and international oil industries. This opens a good perspective for further capacity development in the pilot country through e.g. the IOC co-sponsored Joint Industry Project named COCARDE (Cold-Water Carbonate Reservoir Systems in Deep Environments) started in 2009 and leaded by Prof. Henriet. It may be regarded as a bridgehead of the GBCP programme towards Industry. I.2.7. Capacity-development results of TTR Between 1991 and 2008 seventeen (17) TTR cruises were attended by 981 participants, some 70% were BSc, MSc and PhD students and early career scientists. Well over 1000 participants attended sixteen (16) TTR Post-cruise conferences. Priorities were given to talks by trainees while a more limited number of presentations on key issues were given by the supervisors and invited speakers. Trainees participated in no less than 30 specialized field workshops held in countries around the Atlantic Ocean (from Ireland and Greenland to Morocco and South Africa) and the Mediterranean-Black Sea region. They were involved in drafting cruises reports and presented the results at the first-order international fora. A number of ex-trainees in TTR have become research leaders in their countries. I.2.8. Twenty years later: more lessons from TTR In 1997-1998 the TTR programmed experienced certain refocusing which is only natural for a dynamic research program. Some of the earlier declared research themes became of the secondary importance. Some other got the momentum to become of the primary interest; a few new research themes were identified. Two major lines of action were formulated and followed: on Geosphere-Biosphere coupling processes and on sedimentary processes that shape continental margins. The trainees have become exposed to exciting novel and challenging problems of current interest. Co-operation was strengthened with a number of European projects. IOC was provided with extrabudgetary support for involving more trainees from the South. The above innovative elements helped attracting interest of researchers and trainees. II. TTR synergy effects: other at-sea training projects Several other endeavours that have been inspired by TTR are briefly described below. They more resemble traditional shipboard training programs as do not imply the full but a part of the TTR cycle. These programs however represent important national and international efforts in capacity development through training in science and knowledge-sharing and valuably contribute to the Capacity Development Programme of IOC. II.1. Baltic Floating University (BFU) BFU started in 1993 as the initiative of the Russian State Hydro-meteorological University (RSHU, St. Petersburg) supported by UNESCO and Helsinki Environmental Commission (HELCOM). It has been established to train young generation of researchers in collecting and analyzing hydro-meteorological and environmental data and in view of promoting regional and inter-regional cooperation between universities that teach marine science and integrated coastal management. The project operates in the Baltic Sea and contributes with training results to IOC/TEMA. With research results it contributes to ICAM and BOOS and to the HELCOM Baltic Monitoring Programme. BFU co-operates with (and gets funds from) a number of the Russian national programmes. In late 1990th mid 2000th it cooperated with the EU-funded Coastal Management, Education and Training (COMET and COMET-2) two-phase project and was one of its training arms. The BFU leader is Dr Tatyana Eremina of RSHU. II.1.1.Working methods The project carries out annually, for two to three weeks, a two-ship operation: a sailing catamaran works in coastal waters while a rented oceanographic vessel works in the Baltic Sea. This combination provides for better boundary conditions for hydro-meteorological research. The UNESCO/IOC Chair in Remote Sensing and Modeling in Oceanography at RSHU is fully involved. Oceanographic vessels of Head Department of Navigation and Oceanography of the Russian Navy and the Russian Academy of Science were used. BFU provides students with training in physical and chemical oceanography, remote sensing and modelling, ecological and environmental sciences through shipboard lectures and mid-cruise workshops, data collection, analysis and interpretation. Target groups are undergraduate and post-graduate students. Cruise data are used for writing BSc and MSc theses. II.1.2. Training results Between 1993 and 2009 nearly 300 students and young researchers from over 30 countries of Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America participated. The trainees came from Algeria, Angola, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Brazil, Cameroon, Chile, China, Columbia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Latvia, Mexico, Mozambique, Namibia, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, UK, Ukraine and Zaire. Mid-cruise seminars at ports of call provide for enhanced regional cooperation and knowledge-shearing. Shipboard seminars and round-table discussions give the trainees a challenging opportunity to consider the cruise research results, get training in data synthesis and presentation, and provide input to specific subjects like the elaboration of proposals for the coastal zone policy in the Eastern Baltic. II.1.3. Publications The BFU Research Bulletin (published annually at RSHU, in English) is a forum for researchers and students of the participating countries to present the results of their research. Cruises summary results are available at the project site: http://eng.rshu.ru/bfu.asp. II.2. Caspian Floating University (CFU) CFU was launched in 1999 (approved by the IOC Resolution XX-19) to upgrade professional abilities of students and young scientists, and to promote cooperation and mutual understanding among the nations of the region for conservation and rational exploitation of the Caspian natural resources. The Marine Ecology School launched within CFU in 2001 involves senior schoolchildren, teachers from rural schools and other stakeholders from coastal communities. CFU research is based on integrated multidisciplinary approach to ecosystem studies. It has been executed by the Caspian Fisheries Research Institute (Astrakhan, Russia). The project leader is Dr. Valentina Belyaeva of the said Institute. II.2.1. Working methods CFU uses small fishery boats for offshore sampling and/or operates from pulling boats used for coastal/near shore research. The training cycle includes participation in fieldworks (mastering in methods of data collection and processing), courses on environmental issues of the Caspian Sea, preparation of reports and publications, presentations at workshops and conferences. CFU refers to the most important Caspian environmental issues such as impact of the sea level fluctuations and marine pollution on aquatic and coastal ecosystems and bioresources; and biodiversity of the Caspian ecosystem with reference to the biodiversity conservation and integrated coastal management issues. II.2.2. Training results Nearly 200 participants from countries surrounding the Caspian Sea (but Iran) took part in field works and over 600 participated in a dozen post-cruise and thematic workshops, seminars and conferences. 15-20 schoolchildren annually take the course at the Marine Ecology School. II.2.3. Publications CFU results have been published in the Caspian Floating University Research Bulletin (three issues since 2000) and other journals. II.3. University of the Sea (UoS) UoS is dedicated to building marine science capacity in the Asia Pacific region. It aims to bring together senior researchers and young local scholars to address marine science issues of direct interest to the region. The programme endeavours to give these students the opportunity to gain the skills and knowledge required for participation in the global debate on the use of the ocean (http://www.geosci.usyd.edu.au/uos/). UoS is a partnership between the IOC, several universities in Australia, the University of Tokyo, the Korean Ocean Research and Development Institute, Tongji University China, the Partnership for Observation of the Global Oceans Canada, the National Institute of Oceanography Goa and the Indonesian Research Centre for Marine Technology. The UoS program is funded by grants from the Toyota Foundation in Japan, the Australian Earth Systems Science Network, the Asia Pacific Network for Global Change Research Australia and some other sources, including IOC. The programme uses various research vessels operating in the region and depends on a specific program of a particular cruise. UoS is managed by the Executive Committee: Dr Elaine Baker, University of Sydney, and Prof. Patrick De Deckker, Australian National University. II.3.1. Working methods and training results UoS is the major shipboard training programme in the Asia-Pacific region. In 2005 and 2006, during two geological cruises of the French R/V Marion Dufresne in seas surrounding Australia twenty (20) and nineteen (19) students were trained, subsequently. The 2007 in a cruise operated from the New-Zealand R/V Tangaroa in the Tasmanian Sea twelve (12) students were trained. In 2008-2009 eighteen (18) students participated in a programme onboard the German R/V The Sonne. The three 4-week long cruises (October 2008 to January 2009) focused on sea floor mapping and sampling in the Indian Ocean off the west coast of Australia. Sixty-nine (69) trainees from the following 21 countries became involved so far in the UoS operations: Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, RP China, East Timor, Fiji, France, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Spain and Sri Lanka. Most of the trainees in the UoS cruises were PhD and MSc students and early career scientists. The trainees had lectures on seafloor mapping, ocean productivity, paleoclimate, oceanography, deep sea drilling results and other items. While on watch, they were trained in various oceanographic techniques including: piston coring, dredging, CTD, XBT, magnetometer, gravity meter, plankton tows, seismic reflection profiling, multibeam mapping, navigation, etc. II.4. A few lessons from floating universities The three above-mentioned floating universities (BFU, CFU, UoS) provide shipboard training in science. They have a more limited scope as compared to TTR however remain to be useful mechanisms for capacity development at a regional scale. The student mix has been suitably diverse to accommodate many of the countries in the region. Cruises have been constructed in the way to ensure a strong inter-disciplinary approach. Time has been allocated to give trainees on-board a fair idea of the many different aspects of oceanography, training provided in the collection, analysis and presentation of findings. While UoS has involved an important number of countries from a region with limited capacities, BFU and CFU have been promoting regional co-operation in marine science education. What remains to be done to make these endeavours even more productive and the results sustainable? Supervisors should continue working with the students on data processing and analyses and ensure that participating students receive as much exposure as possible through writing up their results, presenting them at national and international fora and publishing in peer-reviewed literature. III. Training at sea and the global crises The 2009 global crises became an obstacle for training at sea. The number of research cruises globally diminished. There were no UoS cruises after February 2009. Under the IOC umbrella only a small-scale BFU cruise in the coastal Baltic was carried out in the summer of 2009. Hopefully it will continue the same way in 2010. TTR has certain commitments for the year 2011 but there were no cruises in 2009 and there will be no cruise in 2010. No information is available from CFU and UoS regarding their future. IV. Whats next? Lessons from 20 years of experiences To create a successful capacity development program that would include shipboard training, the following elements seem to be indispensible: 1. Exciting novel and challenging problems of current interest need to be identified for each cruise, as this will attract the interest of students, leading researchers and funding agencies. 2. Programs need to have a clear and concise structure that ensures professional training at sea by experts in the discipline. 3. The student mix must be suitably diverse to accommodate many of the countries in the region. 4. Cruises should be constructed to ensure a strong inter-disciplinary approach. 5. Time should be allocated to give students on-board a fair idea of the many different aspects of oceanography, training them in the collection, analysis and presentation of findings. 6. The ship-board training is an essential but not the only component. Supervisors should continue working with the students on data processing and analyses and ensure that participating students receive as much exposure as possible through writing up their results, presenting them at national and international fora and publishing in peer-reviewed literature. References 1. Year 2000 Challenges for Marine Science Training and Education World-wide. UNESCO Reports in Marine Science No. 52, UNESCO, 1988, 129 pp. 2. University Field Courses in Marine Sciences. MARINF/79, UNESCO, 1990, 58 pp. 3. Geological and Geophysical Investigations in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. UNESCO Reports in Marine Science No. 56, UNESCO, 1992, 208 pp. 4. Woodside, J. (1992). Advanced Field Study Workshops in Mediterranean Marine Geosciences. ESF Communications No. 27, p. 6-9. 5. Kenyon, N.H., Ivanov, M.K., Akhmetzhanov, A. M. (Eds). Cold Water Carbonate Mounds and Sediment Transport on the Northeast Atlantic Margin. 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